0.94 for nonbreeders), a notable difference for a long-lived mammal, demonstrating that investment in reproduction does result in a cost to survival for Weddell seals, contrary to the prudent parent hypothesis. Results strongly supported the presence of reproductive costs to survival (mean annual survival probability was 0.91 for breeders vs. Using multistate mark-resight models and 26 years of mark-resight data (1979-2004), we estimated the costs of reproduction to survival and reproductive probabilities for Weddell seals in Erebus Bay, Antarctica and evaluated whether this species either conformed to the 'prudent parent' reproductive strategy predicted by life-history theory for long-lived mammals or alternatively, incurred costs to survival in order to reproduce in a variable environment (flexible-strategy hypothesis). These trade-offs are also known as reproductive costs and may represent significant factors shaping life-history strategy for many species. Organisms balance current reproduction against future survival and reproduction, which results in life-history trade-offs.
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